Alternative Dispute Resolution

Elective Dispute Resolution Free Online Research Papers Elective Dispute Resolution, alluded hereon as ADR, can be characterized as an aggregate depiction of procedure or systems that gatherings can use to determine debates instead of bringing a case through the proper court structure. ADR is a piece of the common equity framework with the United Kingdom. It is a key part of the common equity framework and has become in the course of recent years. The issue being referred to will be to asses to contentions for and against the utilization of ADR in the Civil Justice framework. These options have been created to manage the apparent weaknesses of the proper structure of law and court system. The expanded significance of ADR has been motioned in both enactment and court strategies. The utilization of ADR was highlighted prevalently in Lord Woolf’s Interim Report and his Final Report. In his last report, Lord Woolf asked that individuals ought to be urged to utilize the developing number of complaint procedures techniques, as ADR, before taking their cases through court procedures. ADR highlights conspicuous in the new Civil Procedure Rules (CPR) 1998.Rule 1. (4.) (1) expresses that the court should advance the abrogating objective by effectively overseeing cases. Rule1.4. (2) continues explaining twelve unique instances of what successful case the board implies. The fifth of these is to urge the gatherings to utilize ADR methods if the court believes that to be proper and to encourage the utilization of such strategies. Rule 26.4 of the CPR 1998 empowers judges either for their own or with the understanding of the two gatherings, to stop court procedures where they believe the contest to be more qualified to arrangement by some elective technique. In the event that in this manner a court is of the conclusion that a contest could have been viably settled through some elective instrument and this was brought to the consideration of the gatherings, at that point under Rule 45.5 of the CPR, the gathering demanding that the case be brought under the steady gaze of the court, might be punished by the court by granting them diminished or no expense should they win the case. This standard is likewise delineated in R (Cowl) v Plymouth City Council [2001] CA. It is conceivable to decline to take part in ADR without along these lines enduring in the honors of cost: Hurst v Leeming [2002]. There are various kinds of elective contest goals. These have been distinguished in the Lord Chancellor Department 1998 Consultation paper as being-intervention; intercession; mollification; drug arb; master assurance; early impartial assessment; unbiased actuality discovering; Ombudsmen and Utility Regulations. Be that as it may, on the grounds that the extents of the ADR instruments are so wide, just the most well-known and for the most part utilized types of ADR will be considered in detail. The first and the most seasoned of the elective strategies is mediation. This is the methodology whereby parties allude the issue to a third for goals, as opposed to taking the case to the conventional courts. The mediator must be fair-minded, this implies, he/she should not favor one side. He is relied upon to be reasonable and just and not preferring any gathering. The authority is relied upon to choose the case before him as indicated by its realities. By and large, the arbitrator’s choice is legitimately authoritative thus it is beyond the realm of imagination to expect to go to the court I a gathering is discontent with the choice. There are a wide range of sorts of intervention and most have basic highlights, including-shared understanding between the gatherings to mediate; it is private and has less custom than the courts; the choice isn't made by the individual themselves; the procedure is conclusive and legitimately authoritative and there are constrained reason for testing a choice. Mediation is broadly utilized for global debates, questions between significant co-companies, work rights questions and purchaser debates. It is administered by the Arbitration Act (AA) 1996 which sets out its principles and gives a definition. The gatherings can as a rule pick a mediator, giving they can concede to one. The AA 1996 sets down severe guidelines for how discretion should function. Nonetheless, as discretion is planned to be less formal, more affordable and more adaptable than the court, the guidelines of proof are not as severe and gatherings can as a rule have a state by they way they need the conference to be led. When the gatherings have chosen to utilize intervention and the procedure has started, the gatherings normally surrender their entitlement to look for goals of the issue somewhere else, for example, a court or council. A second alterative premise on which gatherings can resolve debates is by utilizing the procedure of intercession. Intercession is the procedure whereby an outsider goes about as a channel through which two questioning gatherings convey and haggle trying to arrive at a typical goals of an issue. The middle person may move between the gatherings, imparting their feelings, without them meeting, or on the other hand, the arbiter may work within the sight of the gatherings, yet in either circumstance, the accentuation is on the gatherings themselves working out a common understanding concerning how the contest being referred to will be to be settled. Intervention is in excess of a minor arrangement. A wide range of intervention have the accompanying basic highlights : it is willful gatherings can decide to arbiter or to; it is private and secret, the middle person is unbiased and autonomous and the gatherings can choose how it is to be chosen. Intercession can be utilized in cases including just two (2) parties and those including an enormous number of gatherings or whole networks. Intercession is the most wide-extending ADR process and is utilized in numerous territory of question including, bury alia, business, purchaser, separation and partition, carelessness, training and individual injury. Most intervention gatherings are closed inside a day, however it is feasible for intercession to happen more than a few gatherings. There are no set results. The scope of cures than can be accomplished is as wide as you need it to be. You are not limited to the results which a court could arrange. A gathering could settle on an understanding which incorporates a statement of regret, a guarantee to do or not to accomplish something, compensatory discounts, substitution of merchandise, etc. Intervention is a non-restricting procedure understandings are not lawfully gorging. In any case, it has a decent reputation with regards to keeping understandings. On the off chance that no understanding is reached, elective strategies can be utilized or gatherings can have response to the courts. Placation makes intervention a stride further and enables the conciliator to propose justification for bargain and the conceivable reason for convincing understanding. In this way, assuagement has a more interventionist job. The conciliator ought to be fair. Pacification is private and the terms of settlement are not made open except if the gatherings concur. The kind of results accomplished are like those in intervention, including-a conciliatory sentiment; clarification and pay changes practically speaking or technique. Another Mechanism of ADR is the workplace of the Ombudsmen. Ombudsmen are autonomous office holders who explore and rule on grievances from individuals from general society about mal organization in government, and I specific, administrations both people in general and private part. Some Ombudsmen use intervention as a piece of their contest goals methods. The forces of the ombudsman fluctuate. They can make proposal; just a couple can settle on choices which are enforceable. Drug Arb is a mix of intervention and assertion where the gatherings consent to intercede; bit if that neglects to accomplish a settlement, the question id alluded to mediation. A similar individual may go about as the middle person and the authority in this sort of course of action. In spite of the fact that, not in itself a type of ADR, it is esteemed important to give a concise investigation of courts. Councils are fundamentally the same as a court yet rather, it is a legal foundation in the way of a court to hear specific complaints or master matters of debate. Instances of councils incorporate the managerial court, business and mechanical court. Courts don't manage any piece of the legal intensity of the state. (Lawyer General v British Broadcasting Corporation [1980]. HL) it has a particular ward as designated by apportioned by Parliament. The qualities and shortcomings of Alternative Dispute Resolution will presently be encouraged trailed by a general review of whether the procedure in itself is effective. For some, reasons, backers of ADR accept that it is better than claims and case. ADR is commonly quicker. Cases and questions can be settled surprisingly fast or even days, in this manner setting aside less effort to arrive at a choice than trusting that the case will go to preliminary which can take a very long time before a choice is reached. It is altogether more cost-effective than the conventional courts which at that point to be costly. It depends on more straightforward investment by the disputants, instead of being controlled by the courts, legal counselors or even the state. In most ADR forms, the gatherings diagram the procedure they will utilize and characterize the substance of their understandings. This kind of association is accepted to build individuals fulfillment with the results, just as their consistence with the understanding came to. In this way, the gatherings shave a specific measure of adaptability in picking what rule gulp be applied to their question. An extraordinary trait of ADR is that, not normal for debates in the courts for specific issues, there is no jury included. This is beneficial in light of the fact that juries can be flighty and frequently rearrange or decline harms granted absolutely as per whether they favor a specific gathering. Most ADR forms depend on an integrative methodology. They are more helpful and less serious than antagonistic court-based techniques, similar to prosecution. Consequently, ADR will in general produce less acceleration and malevolence between the gatherings. Actually, taking an interest in ADR will frequently at last improve, instead of exacerbate, the relationship betwe

Level 2 Paediatric Emergency First Aid

CU1514 Pediatric Emergency First Aid 20 pages 1. 1 Identify the obligations of a pediatric first aider. I should expect to safeguard life, forestall the condition exacerbating, and advance recuperation. Duty Description - Remain quiet at all timesAppear certain and consoling - Conduct a scene surveyAssess the circumstance without Endangering my own life. - Conduct an essential surveyIdentify and evaluate the degree of the Illness, injury or state of the setback. Take care of the requirements of otherEnsure their wellbeing and oversee kids or bystandersbehaviour. - Send for clinical helpAmbulance, police or crisis salvage administrations (as a first aider, I ought to consistently remain with the loss and send another person to call for help if conceivable) - Give quick, fitting treatmentto safeguard life, forestall the condition declining and advance recuperation - Take suitable precautionary measures to limit contamination Protect yourself and loss by utilizing proper methods and har dware Arrange for additional, qualified clinical consideration Transporting the loss to emergency clinic or organizing clinical assessment. - Reporting and recordingVerbal and set up accounts, finishing mishap and episode reports - Maintaining emergency treatment hardware, including medical aid units Ensure gear is forward-thinking and medical aid packs are very much loaded - Keeping in the know regarding medical aid methodology Take part in customary refreshing and preparing 1. 2 Describe how to limit the danger of contamination to self and others.I ought to do the accompanying to limit the danger of disease to self as well as other people:- * I ought to consistently wash my hands when giving emergency treatment * I should consistently wear dispensable gloves for managing any medical aid circumstances including blood or other body liquids (e. g. upchuck) * Cover the casualty’s open injuries with fitting sterile dressings * Make sure my own cuts or wounds are satisfactorily s ecured by mortars * Use suitable defensive hardware where my own wellbeing might be put in danger, e. g. face shields * Dispose of any dirty dressings (e. g. lood splashed), or other emergency treatment materials, in proper clinical waste removal packs. 1. 3 Describe reasonable medical aid gear, including individual securities, and how it is utilized properly. Medical aid hardware ordinarily comprises of assortment of provisions for regulating emergency treatment, limiting the danger of contamination and individual defensive gear (PPE). An emergency treatment unit must be effectively recognizable and unmistakably marked, ordinarily with a white cross on a green foundation. It is significant that emergency treatment hardware is effectively open and not bolted away, it ought to be obviously signed.The medical aid box ought to be checked normally to ensure that nothing is harmed and nothing is absent. The substance of a medical aid unit may fluctuate marginally relying upon the strateg ies and techniques of the setting. A few settings don't utilize mortars or purifying wipes as a result of sensitivity dangers for kids. General first and units ought to never contain prescriptions of any sort, even essential painkillers. First aiders are not able to offer prescriptions to kids as they don't have a clue about the clinical history or any sensitivities the kid may have. A standard medical aid unit will for the most part contain the accompanying: * Sterile dressings of various sizes (e. . sterile dressing cushions, eye cushions) * Bandages of various kinds and sizes (e. g. triangular, roller, finger swathes) * Adhesive tape (non-allergenic) * Disposable gloves * Scissors * Tweezers * Safety pins * Disposable face shields * Disposable thermometers 1. 4 Identify what data should be remembered for a mishap report/episode record, and how to record it. It is significant that all settings complete a particular from to mishaps and episodes, these structures are finished for th is reason. * It is a lawful necessity * It gives a record in case of entanglements (e. . following a head injury). * It advises guardians and carers. * It can assist with checking potential risks in the setting. * It might be required as proof in associated cases with maltreatment of non-inadvertent wounds. Data ought to consistently be recorded obviously and precisely and ought to be marked and dated by the first aider. Some mishap report structures use body charts to help in the depictions of explicit wounds, for instance, indicating precisely where wounding showed up or the specific zone where a youngster feels torment. The primary data recorded ought to incorporate:- Details of the harmed or wiped out youngster (name, date of birth, fundamental contact subtleties) †Details of the mishap or episode (date, time, where it occurred) †Details of activity of treatment given (what occurred, degree of any wounds, treatment given) †Advice of further treatment suggested (e. g. emergency clinic treatment) †Information guardians and carers (when and how guardians have been reached) †Signature of the first aider, the date and time. †Information ought to be written in dark pen. 1. 5 Define a newborn child and kid for the motivations behind medical aid treatment.An baby is generally characterized as younger than one year and youngster from one year to around 12 years of age. In any case, some emergency treatment will fluctuate contingent upon size and weight of setback and methods ought to consistently be adjusted as needs be. 2. 1 Demonstrate how to lead a scene study A scene overview includes your underlying evaluation of the crisis circumstance and choosing the needs of your activity. Utilize your faculties to evaluate what may have occurred: * Look for intimations (e. g. an unfilled medication bottle next to an oblivious kid). * Listen to data structure others (e. g. ther youngsters mentioning to you what occurred). * Smell anything irre gular (e. g. gas or different exhaust) When directing a scene review, you should consider: * Whether I or the setback are in any peril (e. g. on the off chance that the structure is ablaze) * If the loss has any untruth undermining conditions (e. g. not breathing) * If any spectators can support you (e. g. other kids or associates) * Whether you have to call for additional help (e. g. emergency vehicle, police or salvage administrations). Leading a scene overview causes the first aider to evaluate the reality of the circumstance and settle on the needs for action.It additionally help with choosing what further assistance, assuming any, is required, If there is more than one loss, at that point the first aider needs to organize treatment, manage the most serous first and recall that the calmest loss regularly needs the most assistance. In calling for help, the first aider must choose what help is required and how to send for help, a few circumstances may include sending for crisis ad ministrations, for example, emergency vehicle, police or fire and salvage. Different circumstances may require the help of another grown-up, an associate, director or boss. 2. 2 Demonstrate how to direct an essential review on a newborn child and child.Once I have led a scene overview and settled on your needs, at that point an essential study will give an increasingly nitty gritty evaluation of the setback. To do this you should consider DRABC. * DANGER - If you have not effectively done as such, ensure the loss is protected. * RESPONSE †Ask the loss ‘Can you hear me? ’ or ‘what occurred? ’ If they react, at that point you realize that they are cognizant and breathing and I ought to try to avoid panicking, console the setback and proceed with my assessment If there is no reaction, at that point I ought to send for help and continue as follows: * AIRWAY †Open the aviation route by tenderly tilting the head back and lifting the chin.This will fores tall the casualty’s tongue from hindering their aviation route. * BREATHING †Look to check whether the chest is rising and falling, tune in for breathing sounds and spot your cheek near the casualty’s nose and mouth to feel for breath. On the off chance that the setback is breathing regularly, place them in the recuperation position, except if you presume a spinal physical issue and proceed with your assessment. On the off chance that the setback isn't breathing, at that point give five salvage breaths and get ready to start CPR * CIRCULATION †Check the casualty’s beat by feeling the significant supply route in the neck, (carotid course) just beneath the stunning. . 3 Identify when and how to call for help. The prepared first aider ought to consistently remain with the setback and send another person to call to help. This takes into account first aider to screen the state of the loss and play out any treatment whenever required, for instance doing CPR if the setback quits relaxing. Never leave a newborn child or kid setback unattended. In the event that any of the crisis administrations are required, this ought to be finished by calling, 999.It is basic o convey the accompanying data precisely * Which crisis administration is required ( emergency vehicle, police and additionally fire and salvage administration) * A contact phone number (generally the number the call is produced using) * The specific area of the incident(Local tourist spots give a valuable guide) * The sort and earnestness of the occurrence (e. g. street car crash, school transport slammed into two different vehicles, hindering a significant street intersection) * The number and rough time of setbacks included (e. g. five kids and one grown-up harmed, two kids in a genuine condition).Once you have managed the needs, you should now direct an increasingly itemized assessment of the loss. This will incorporate any data from the setback and the signs and manifestation s. On the off chance that the kid is mature enough, ask them what occurred, how they fell and where they hurt. Other youngsters or spectators may likewise have the option to give you data as well. You ought to consistently manage perilous signs and indications first. For instance, clear and serious dying. A general assessment should start at the casualty’s head and work down the body. Make sure to move the casualty’s head and work down the body.Remember to move the loss as meager as could reasonably be expected and utilize your faculties to look, feel, tune in and smell. Utilize two hands to think about any contrasts between the different sides

Turkeys and babies

Turkeys and babies Its late Saturday night, Sunday morning by Boston time, and Im hunched over on the airport floor. My eyes are glazed with the exhausting combination of spending quality time with my family/staying up late talking to people about Life, capital L/eating way too many yams, and Ive almost entirely tuned out my surroundings when a thirty-something-ish man steps over me. The cry of the small child in his arms yanks me unpleasantly back to Earth like Floo powder. The babies are after me, I think, as my heart plummets from my chest onto San Francisco Internationals questionably-colored carpet. I dont know what it is about me and public transportation and babies. Though I dont visit home particularly frequently, going to school 3,000 miles away means Im racking up more frequent flyer miles ever before, and so Ive pretty much experienced the pinnacle of bad flights zero leg room, back row seating with the constant smell of bathroom wafting overhead for six hours, the guy in front of me reclining into my spleen, the guy on my right bathed in eu dblah-blah-YOURE ON AN ENCLOSED AIRCRAFT, BUDDY pretty much seen, done, and smelled it all. But my limit comes at babies. I love kids, I really do. Really really really really, really really do. I babysit, and I go all girly and goo-goo-eyed at infants with their little-itty-bitty fingers and toes and their tiny shoes BUT. However. There comes a point when you have not slept all night becaue you thought youd get better rest on the plane, when youre all tucked in under the ambiguously sanitary travel blanket, and youve changed into your footsie pajamas (okay, I dont have footsie pajamas, but if I did I would definitely wear them), and your iPods on your sleeping playlist and youre JUST ON THE BRINK OF DRIFTING OFF when the kid starts to scream and you think, Im gonna go Sparta on that kid and kick him into a well.* (Why yes! I did watch 300 over Thanksgiving. My family actually watched it three times, in three different languages. Nothing says epic like ESTA ES SPARTAAA!) I suppose you can be thankful for this particular kid, though, because 1) there is only one of them, unlike the time when there were not one, not two, but FOUR crying in harmony on my first flight of sophomore year and 2) it is keeping me up to write this blog entry. Thanks, baby. And so my Thanksgiving break can not only be described as epic, but also too short, and hairy. Perhaps a more proper term would be beard-y, as it seems that about half of my male friends have grown beards since I came back from school. (What? Its No-Shave-November. -Nick) I mostly ate a lot of food, and caught up with high school friends, family friends, randomly met but now current friends, in which we discussed the current states of our lives and how they compared to the previous states of our lives, and then ate a lot more food. Sophomore year seems about as good a time as any for a midlife crisis, and from all those aforementioned discussions of Life, capital L, it seems to be happening/has happened to just about everyone I know. Keri dropped her double major; my hardcore physics friend at Claremont recently discovered he really enjoyed molecular biology and took a 180 into a bio major. I myself unofficially re-declared myself undeclared at some point in the middle of the semester (which just means I thought to myself, hmm, I dislike my current major); shortly before I came home for Thanksgiving I officially changed my major; then over the three days at home I began reconsidering a different path. Even more than that, most of us are dealing with this weird thing about sort of, kind of being adults now (which Im particularly terrible at; I forgot to change my Brita filter before I left for California and just drank half a cup of moldy water. Hopefully all those yams arent going to come back up). But I wont give you the dissatisfaction of telling you what major Ive settled on for now, since itll probably change by tomorrow and well be back to square one. :) The thing that keeps coming back to me, though, is that I keep feeling like that everything important that Ive been screwing up lately is going to make some monumental difference upon where I end up in life, but when I look closer most of whats become important to me has all been the result of chance and momentary mistakes. Maybe its just a function of me being happy wherever I end up. Then, though, I have to remind myself that I certainly havent ended up anywhere, and these decisions and apparent slip ups are all part of the journey. A journey filled with screaming babies, no less. IN ANY CASE. There are three weeks until I finish my finals and say goodbye to my first semester as a sophomore, and the sunrise falling gracefully on crimson New England trees below means its probably time to get my shoes back on. Three weeks filled with neuroscience readings, problem set grading, lots and lots and lots of hours of dance practice, and a couple long shifts on the ambulance before I get to fly back home; three weeks in which hopefully, just maybe, Ill start to figure a little more of this out. *I know that now Im going to get all sorts of hate mail from Young Mother Travelers of America, so I apologize. I really dont mean to be insensitive to mothers and their travel needs. Maybe youre the kind of mother that never, EVER travels with her kid and have to make an emergency flight from San Francisco to Boston because Dora the Explorer is coming to town, or something, but if thats true Ive been present at least six or seven of these emergencies, and its starting to get a little old because a lot of them are red-eyes and I am sometimes selfish at four in the morning. Alrighty? I know Ill probably hate myself for saying this when I have a kid later on, and have to make all sorts of emergency flights to large metropolitan areas with many college kids, but for now, can all the babies please just STAY IN ONE PLACE??

Inclusion Of The Special Education Program - 1773 Words

A study revealed that learning is a process that happens under observable and ideal conditions to the extent that situations, in which students are placed purposely or otherwise, had great effects on them. There must be collaboration together between the special education program and the regular education to hand in hand assess the overall needs of students with learning problems to cooperatively make efficient educational strategies to match the needs of the students (Will, 1986). Sasartawi Abdul Jabbar (2011) stated that inclusion is defined as the process of incorporating a child into a conventional educational environment as he or she becomes sufficiently prepared both academically and emotionally. Full inclusion represents the†¦show more content†¦Though instances are rough for the Hearing Impaired in their way of communication, students with hearing impairment are mostly attending to regular schools and are being educated in general education set up. Children with hearing impairment obtain special education and related services under the federal disability category of hearing impairments (Schildroth and Hotto, 1996; Gallaudet Research Institute, 2006). The main purpose of promoting inclusion is to help individuals to be well equipped for life, gaining ideas from the norms, enjoying a typical life experiences, helping to cope up with the attitudes of individuals without disabilities, and withstand discrimination in the society independently (Bi klen et. Al.,1987). Inclusion has a great part to deaf students’ emotional growth and belongingness, embolden an admiration of variousness, and increases society’s awareness of different individual needs, and to regard the rights of various ethnicity (Majeed, 2008). In other areas in special education there has been also an increase in the placement of students with disabilities (Friend Bursuck, 1996). There are two types of inclusion: social inclusion (mainstreaming) and educational inclusion (full inclusion). Stinson and Antia (1999) compared the two concepts in terms of three dimensions. For the educational setting dimension, the practical application of full inclusion requires that Hearing

Death in William Shakespeare’s Hamlet Essay - 950 Words

â€Å"So shall you hear of carnal, bloody, and unnatural acts, of accidental judgments, casual slaughters, of deaths put on by cunning and forced cause,† (Hamlet, Act V, Scene 2, Lines 381-384). So says Horatio, best friend of Prince Hamlet in the final few lines of the play. He speaks these words after the deaths of Hamlet, Claudius, King of Denmark, Gertrude, Queen of Denmark, and Laertes, son of Polonius. Also dead are Hamlet, King of Denmark, Rosencrantz and Guildenstern, former friends of Hamlet, Polonius, councilor to the King, and Ophelia, daughter of Polonius. Death is an extremely prevalent theme in William Shakespeare’s Hamlet. However, each death is unique in circumstances, causes, and effects. Three important deaths in Hamlet were†¦show more content†¦Hamlet had not realised that his father had been murdered. The ghost goes on to say, â€Å"The serpent that did sting thy father’s life now wears his crown,† (Hamlet, Act I, Scene 5, Line s 38-39). It is at this point that Hamlet realises that his father’s murderer was his uncle, Claudius. Hamlet swears to have revenge. This sets up the circumstances that cause the remainder of the action in the play. One of the most interesting deaths in Hamlet is the death of Ophelia. Ophelia was the daughter of Polonius, councilor to the king. However, she was also Prince Hamlet’s girlfriend. She died by drowning in a river. It is most likely that she committed suicide, though there was never any evidence to that effect, and it is impossible to say for sure. The chain of events leading to her death came from two different directions. One cause of her apparent suicide could have been Hamlet’s madness. They had been lovers, but during the time prior to her death he became very cold toward her and bordered on insanity. In one brief soliloquy she says the following: And I, of ladies most deject and wretched, That sucked the honey of his musicked vows, Now see that noble and most sovereign reason Like sweet bells jangled, out of time and harsh, That unmatched form and feature of blown youth Blasted with ecstasy. O, woe is me T’ have seen what I have seen, see what I see! Hamlet, Act III, Scene 1, Lines 158-164 She is lamenting the factShow MoreRelatedThe Death Penalty In William Shakespeares Hamlet And Claudius958 Words   |  4 PagesIn William Shakespeare’s, Hamlet, King Hamlet was pierced to execution, by his own brother, Claudius. Hamlet had never really thought about killing Claudius, until Claudius had murdered Hamlet’s father, just to become the new King of Denmark. Hamlet had several opportunities to kill Claudius but never did. He was immensely sane, and never wanted to kill anyone because that was not the person he was. Hamlet had many outrageous opportunities to pierce Claudius to death, but he believed that it wasRead MoreEssay about The Theme of Death in William Shakespeares Hamlet944 Words   |  4 PagesTheme of Death in William Shakespeares Hamlet In the play Hamlet, by William Shakespeare, the protagonist, Hamlet is obsessed with the idea of death, and during the course of the play he contemplates death from numerous perspectives. He ponders the physical aspects of death, as seen with Yorickss skull, his fathers ghost, as well as the dead bodies in the cemetery. Hamlet also contemplates the spiritual aspects of the afterlife with his various soliloquies. 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Arthur Millers Death of a Salesman is about a sad salesman named Willy Loman who has spent his entire adult life working in sales, hoping to makes something of his life with little success, but always believing and affirming that a man who is well-liked is always successful. Death of a Salesman has whatRead MoreWilliam Shakespeare: A Legendary Author Essay896 Words   |  4 PagesWilliam Shakespeare’s intellectual use of the English language is what brought him prosperity throughout his lifetime, and what brings us to tears and laughter in the modern world. The life of Shakespeare is of great importance to English literature because of his many contributions including poetry, stories, and plays. However, many people do not know that he also owned a business. â€Å"William Shakespeare was a professional actor, a businessman, and a playwright. Today, nearly four hundred yearsRead MoreWilliam Shakespeare Influences882 Words   |  4 PagesWilliam Shakespeare is best known as England’s National Poet and also known as the â€Å"Bard of Avon.† He is credited for writing 38 plays, 154 sonnets, and other poems. Throughout Shakespeare’s career, his purpose of writing evolved over time. Shakespeare drew inspiration for his works through various authors, the death of his son, and the exploration of the meaning of life towards the end of his career. These life experiences shaped some of the greatest pieces of literature written in the English RenaissanceRead MoreHamlet, By William Shakespeare Essay1453 Words   |  6 PagesHamlet by William Shakespeare explores many aspects of mankind--death, betrayal, love, and mourning. Out of these, the most prominent theme in this play is death in the form of suicide. 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The lengths he is willing to go compare to Hamlet’s determination to seek revenge upon his uncle, and father’s murdererRead MoreWilliam Shakespeare s Hamlet - Longing For Revenge1304 Words   |  6 Pagesfor Revenge William Shakespeare was born in England in April of 1564 and was an English poet and playwright . Shakespeare is universally known as the greatest writer in the English language. Shakespeare frequently produced tragedies that are continuously acted out today, along with many plays and sonnets.. Although Shakespeare is seen today as a great writer who changed the world, his reputation did not rise to these heights until around the 19th century. In all of Shakespeare’s astounding playsRead MoreTaking a Look at Shakespeares Imagery Essay1012 Words   |  5 PagesShakespeare’s writings have touched many lives, both in the Elizabethan era and in today’s modern society. He has so many famous writings and plays that there are too many to talk about. He put a lot of time, heart, and effort into all of his writings. Three of his most famous major works are Romeo and Juliet, Macbeth, and Hamlet. They are timeless and classics. It is even a question as to why they have lasted to this day. It is most likely because of Shakespeare’s popularity, imagery, and

Cultural Differences Free Essays

Human resources (HR) face several dilemmas on the international stage. Often, these dilemmas are related to cultural determinants that may deeply affect HR strategies and practices. The main aim of this study is to address the topic of cultural diversity within organisations operating in highly divergent cultures. We will write a custom essay sample on Cultural Differences or any similar topic only for you Order Now In particular, the analysis will be focused on the strategies and practices implemented by Italian companies to manage HR in China, by estimating the growing influence of Chinese cultural values on the dynamics and complexity of intercultural human resource management (HRM) and suggesting that different approaches should characterise companies’ strategies when dealing with distinct cultural backgrounds. The study, which was undertaken with 149 executives from Italian companies in Mainland China, demonstrates the degree of knowledge of a cultural environment has a direct correlation with HR strategies and practices. The results show that a better knowledge of cultural values of Chinese individuals may represent a strategic tool to Italian companies in China. The findings of the study have potential to help decision makers of Italian companies to develop strategies able to overcome cultural barriers, to formulate effective HRM policies and to increase company competitive advantage. Introduction Observing an image in a mirror is the common example used by several scholars to represent a business relationship between Western and Chinese counterparts (Hofstede Bond 1988, Trompenaars Hampden-Turner 1998). Actually, operating in China could be better represented by the reflection in a pond. Like the image reflected by the water, the edges of the intercultural business relationship may appear not clearly defined. What is considered usual or common in the Western experience may involve distinct and non easily comprehensible meanings in China. This is mainly due to the fact that individuals tend to use their own cultural values to interpret actions and behaviours of other members of different cultures. This often leads to serious miscommunication problems. As a consequence, business relationships between Western and Chinese companies may be affected by different degrees of cultural conflicts and misunderstandings. The main literature has identified a set of critical determinants that are linked to the economic success of Western companies in China (Hofstede Bond 1988, Ward, Pearson Entrekin 2002, Fang 2006, Chinta Capar 2007). The most part of them is related to cultural issues, business etiquette, language skills, Chinese politics and history, negotiation strategies, communication and logistics. In particular, knowledge and comprehension of Chinese culture and etiquette represent a fundamental key to unlock the opportunities offered by the Chinese market. The significance of family and group ties, the concepts of guanxi, ‘face’ and harmony, Confucian ethics and philosophy deeply characterise the Chinese socio cultural framework and influence individuals’ and group behaviour as well as interpersonal and business relationships. Therefore, companies interested in penetrating the Chinese market should carefully comprise a proper evaluation of the potential outcomes of cultural aspects when planning their strategies. As stated by Adler (2002), one of the most important challenges of the 21st century is to create multinational organisations able to support an economically vibrant and culturally diverse global society. In an international context, characterised by tendencies of global integration and local differentiation, several scholars have stressed the need to develop HR strategies and practices as fundamental sources of competitive advantage (De Cieri 2003, Schuler Jackson 2007). In spite of the significant changes of the international markets, many organisations tend to use traditional tools to manage human capital on global scenarios, based on the mere transfer of HRM solutions from the home country to the international markets. This choice often leads the firm to face several problems that may affect its economic results in the foreign market. Therefore, in order to trace a long term path on distant and different markets it is necessary to develop strategies to manage human capital able to encompass a particular attention to cultural issues (Dowling, Schuler Welch 1994). Cultural determinants still have a deep influence on the Chinese society, and by means of shaping individuals’ behaviour and their ways of thinking and acting, they also affect business and organisational relationships (Su Nie 2008). Therefore, the knowledge of these aspects and their correct management within an organisation is a lever that may lead the company towards successful paths in China. Nonetheless, Western firms tend to give negligible importance to the problems that may arise in a cultural different universe. This short sighted position does not consider that these difficulties may generate barriers able to negatively influence the economic and financial management of the firm. This study aims at suggesting a study model, in order to analyse the relations between the degree of knowledge of the main Chinese cultural values and HRM in China, by providing empirical evidence of the central role that should characterise cultural sensitivity in leading HR strategies and practices. In particular, the analysis will be focused on Italian companies in China. The choice of Italian firms lies in their peculiar socio cultural framework. As suggested by Hofstede (1991), the results calculated for Italy, in terms of power distance, individualism, masculinity and uncertainty avoidance are remarkably different from those computed for China. Indeed, there is widespread understanding the cultural background of a country affects the organisational structure of a company, with particular reference to the strategies, policies and practices followed to manage the human capital. Therefore, more powerful company strategies are likely to integrate cultural sensitivity and adaptation when dealing with different cultural environments. Merely transferring HRM policies to cultural diverse markets often means generating unsolvable problems for the firm. With reference to these issues, the study addresses how Italian firms manage culturally diverse HR in order to reconcile the cultural dilemma and develop successful paths in the Chinese market. Literature Review and Hypotheses Cultural differences influence the organisational performance of a firm by a complex interaction between individuals and environment. The environment can be considered as the sum of organisational and group forces (Cox 1993). Group assumptions can affect motivation and satisfaction degrees as well as behaviour and results of individuals. Besides, the individual level can influence the organisational dimension, in terms of quality, productivity, absenteeism, turnover, profitability and market shares. Together with these indirect effects, it is possible to stress a direct impact of cultural divergence on organisational performance. More precisely, the degree of diversity, within formal and informal structures of an organisation, affects creativity levels, problem solving capabilities and intra organisational communication (Gilbert, Stead Ivancevich 1999). Several authors have suggested the growing impact of cultural issues on HRM. In particular, Laurent (1986) stated that HRM reflects culturally determined patterns. Newman and Nollen (1996) pointed out that work teams can achieve better results if their management practices are compatible with national cultures. In order to develop human capital results and improve firm performance, companies should adapt their HRM practices to the culture of the host country. Cultural issues deeply affect HRM, especially in international markets (De Cieri 2003, Erez 2006). The determinants of international human resource management (IHRM) are influenced by the tension between global integration and market peculiarities (Hannon, Huang Jaw 1995). As a result, a standardised approach to HRM can create significant problems for companies, mainly due to the lack attention towards cultural diversity (Adler 1983). Chinese Cultural Values Although several scholars have analysed the influence of cultural diversity on managerial issues in China (Hofstede Bond 1984, Boisot Child 1999, Martin Larsen 1999, Jaw, et al. 2007), and most of them have mainly examined the role played by guanxi (Alston 1989, Fan 2002, Luo 2007, Gu, Hung Tse 2008), only few have focused on other fundamental Chinese cultural determinants: jiating, renqing, ganqing, lian and mianzi, li jie and ke qi as well as feng su xi guan (Garrott 1995, Leung Chan 2003, Fang 2006, Qian, Razzaque Keng 2007). Guanxi is based on interpersonal ties and can be described as a personal connection, in which an individual is able to persuade another to accomplish a favour or service, or be persuaded. It can also be interpreted as a network of contacts, to which a person can appeal when something is needed and through which he or she can exercise influence on behalf of another. Guanxi obligations can sometimes be described in terms of an extended family and the relationships created through the guanxi medium are personal and not transferable (Boisot Child 1999, Fan 2002, Gu, et al. 2008). However, guanxi cannot be considered as the only value of the entire Chinese culture. Other fundamental elements should be deeply analysed. In particular, jiating reflects Chinese familiar relations. Boisot and Child (1999) suggested that the family represents the foundation of the Chinese society. Faure and Fang (2008) considered that family and group links deeply influence individual behaviour in China. Renqing represents the moral obligation to maintain the relationship and deals with the exchange of favours, in respect of social norms and behavioural codes. Wang (2007) defined renqing in terms of empathy between two people. Ganqing reflects the depth of feeling within an interpersonal relationship. Adler, Campbell and Laurent (1989), and Haley and Haley (2006a) pointed out its importance within working groups: ganqing plays a central role in maintaining and developing the relations based on guanxi, changing impersonal business relationships into more personal links. Lian and mianzi are concepts related to the idea of ‘face’. Lian can be described as the confidence of a society in the moral character of a person, while mianzi represents the social perceptions of the prestige of a person. ‘Face’ is important within Chinese social relations because it affects goodwill and is related to power and influence. The loss of lian would result in a loss of trust within a social network, while the loss of mianzi would result in a loss of authority (Ho 1976, Fang 2006, Faure Fang 2008). Li jie and ke qi refer to customs and etiquette. Leung and Chan (2003), and Faure and Fang (2008) identified the strict relationship between these values and the concept of harmony: group harmony should always be protected; personal emotions are hidden under a surface of harmony. Feng su xi guan reflects tradition and past orientation of the Chinese society. Garrott (1995), and Qian, et al. (2007) considered that tradition and past orientation may impact on the behaviour of Chinese individuals. Even though it is particularly difficult to reduce the complexity of a cultural universe to a finite number of determinants, it is believed that these seven Chinese cultural dimensions are able to provide an adequate representation of the main Chinese cultural values, beliefs and principles. Knowledge of Chinese Culture and HR Training and Development Several scholars have stressed the relationship between a better comprehension of local cultural traits and HR training and development schemes. In particular, it is believed that Italian companies should improve their cultural training and motivational programmes as well as the international experience of expatriate managers, in order to increase workforce performance levels in China. Black and Mendenhall (1990) suggested that cultural training strategies and policies promote higher levels of interaction within multicultural working groups. Cushner and Brislin (1997) showed that cultural training leads working teams towards better results. Along with training policies, Reuber and Fischer (1997) considered the international experience gained by expatriate managers as a crucial factor to foster integration within group functioning. And Adler, et al. (1989) stressed that international experience allows expatriate managers to better understand the emotional and cultural aspects of local staff, fostering a better relationship with them and the hierarchy as well as a better job commitment. In addition, Schwartz and Bilsky (2008) suggested that motivation policies of local staff can promote better results within working groups. The relationship between the knowledge of the main Chinese cultural values (CC) and HR training and development policies and practices in China (TD) has not been empirically tested. However, following the studies by Triandis, Brislin and Hui (1988), Black and Mendenhall (1990), and Cushner and Brislin (1997), it is believed that a better comprehension of local culture, as well as cultural training strategies and programmes, should be considered as crucial factors in order to support the interaction between individuals from different cultures as well as the relationship with the sociocultural environment of the host country and to improve the potential results for multicultural working groups. As a result, a positive relationship is likely to exist between CC and TD. H1: CC has a positive influence on TD Knowledge of Chinese Culture and HR Appraisal and Control Recent evidence has pointed out that cultural differences may influence work team management and functioning (Gibson Zellmer-Bruhn 2001). A number of links can be observed with regard to potential conflicts (Cox, Lobel McLeod 1991, Oetzel 1998), leadership issues (Ayman Chemers 1983, Pillai Meindl 1998), goal definition (Earley Erez 1987), group performance (Gibson 1999, Miah Bird 2007), and team organisation (Kirkman Shapiro 2001). A better knowledge of local culture can be considered as a fundamental factor in order to develop proper HR appraisal and control techniques in the host country. This conclusion is believed to be correct also in the Chinese market, where the concepts of ‘face’ and harmony have a deep impact on individual and group behaviour. It is reasonable to assume that Italian companies should comprise high levels of cultural awareness when planning HR appraisal and control practices in China. Wilkins and Ouchi (1983), and Adler, et al. (1989) analysed the role of HR control practices within multinational companies. In particular, Gilbert, et al. (1999) suggested that a human capital division in the host country is an important determinant to manage cultural diversity and can to lead local HR towards expected results. This could be achieved if multinational companies are able to incorporate a particular attention towards cultural issues when dealing with the dynamics of IHRM. Schwartz and Bilsky (2008) stressed the central role played by HR managers when leading multicultural teams. In fact, as stated by Adler, Brahm and Graham (1992), cultural distance between HR manager and local staff can generate significant problems of integration and high power distance, in particular with reference to the Chinese market. As a result, employees’ motivation and appraisal as well as organisational and control systems should encompass cultural sensitivity. Consequently, a better comprehension of Chinese cultural values (CC) is believed to have a positive relationship with HR appraisal and control techniques of Italian companies in China (OA). This conclusion is supported by the work of Maznevski, et al. (2002). They showed that a HR manager, who shares cultural values with local workforce, can lead to a better relationship between employees and the hierarchical organisation. These considerations jointly support a potential positive relationship between CC and OA. H2: CC has a positive influence on OA Knowledge of Chinese Culture and HR Attitude and Qualifications Recent studies have emphasised the influence of culture on HRM, both from the motivational as well as the behavioural point of view (Jackson Bak 1998, Wang Cowham 2008, Wright, Berrell Gloet 2008). Several scholars have also stressed how Chinese cultural factors can affect organisational culture (Boisot Child 1999, Jaw, et al. 2007), group and leadership issues (Satow Wang 1994, Littrel 2002), job satisfaction and commitment (Wang 2007). In particular, these studies have showed that a better comprehension of the host culture may lead Western companies to develop more suitable HRM strategies and practises, and be able to improve HR attitude and skills. Consequently, it is possible to assume that a stronger understanding of local cultural traits should support Italian companies in enhancing Chinese HR work behaviour. Nes, Solberg and Silkoset (2007) suggested that cultural distance may affect the degree of job commitment and responsibility of HR, by identifying four items. These items have been listed as (a) importance, (b) attachment, (c) maximum effort to maintain the relationship, and (d) maintain forever the relationship. Wang (2007) studied the attitude and qualifications of employees on the basis of two items: (a) job satisfaction, (b) and organisational commitment. Haley and Haley (2006b) pointed out that the attitude of human capital is influenced by job commitment and communication skills, while Adler, et al. (1989) suggested that hierarchy, attitudes toward authority and rules compliance deeply influence employees’ work behaviour and qualifications in China. Alas (2008) focused on job commitment, punctuality and rules compliance. In addition, Selvarajah and Meyer (2008) analysed the employees’ behaviour, with reference to communication and language skills, and Dyer and Reeves (1995) analysed the results achieved by employees and the influence of cultural issues on them, by considering workforce attitudes and behaviours, absenteeism and turnover rates. If a better knowledge of the local cultural system enhances HR attitude and qualifications, then it is possible to assume that a better harmony between cultural values and HR behaviour should lead to increased HR performance levels. Furthermore, Chinta and Capar (2007) described the behaviour of Chinese staff and its relationship with authority and power distance perception by suggesting that the comprehension of cultural differences is essential, since culture influences the way HR behave. As a consequence, these facts support a positive relationship between CC and HR attitude and qualifications in China (HO). H3: CC has a positive influence on HO HRM and HR Attitude and Qualifications Several scholars have analysed the relationship between HRM strategies and practises and HR attitude and qualifications. Becker and Huselid (1998) suggested that HRM systems directly influence employees’ attitude and qualifications and working groups structures. These factors affect employees’ behaviour and performance. Neelankavil, Mathur and Zhang (2000) also suggested that a proper appraisal of local HR is a fundamental solution in order to ensure higher levels of job commitment. Additionally, Huselid (1995), and Schuler and Jackson (2007) considered that training, motivation, appraisal and control represent fundamental tools in HRM practices. Moreover, Dickie (2009) stressed that organisational systems of training and development, social support, job involvement and job rotation are designed to influence job satisfaction and organisational commitment. With reference to the Chinese market, many scholars have emphasised the impact of HRM on HR attitude and qualifications (Zhu Warner 2004, Wang 2007, Selvarajah Meyer 2008, Wright, et al. 2008). In particular, these studies have stressed some issues related to HRM in China that deeply affect HR performance levels: training and motivation, degree of employees’ commitment, turnover and job hopping rates as well as multicultural working groups management. It is reasonable to assume that HRM policies and practices of Italian companies in the Chinese marketplace should impact on the degree of attitude and qualifications of local HR. In particular, it is believed that HR training and development policies (TD) as well as HR appraisal and control practices in China could affect employees’ behaviour, attitude and qualifications. This will imply that TD and OA may be positively related to HO Sample and Site Data were collected from a population of 1,464 Italian companies operating in China, analysed by Prodi and Ronzoni in 2007. After deleting firms with only representative offices (368), a total of 1,096 companies were identified. A total of 67 per cent of them was located in three main economic areas: the Beijing Hub (BJH), the Yangtze River Delta (YRD) and the Pearl River Delta (PRD). The BJH consists of the municipalities of Beijing and Tianjin, YRD comprises the municipality of Shanghai and part of the provinces of Jiangsu and Zhejiang, and PRD consists of Hong Kong and the province of Guangdong. The study focused on Italian companies located in these three main areas (734). The reason for this choice lies in the fact that these areas represent the main economic hubs of China, where most Western companies have their headquarters. Data were obtained from 149 respondents, who represented a convenience sample of Italian business executives of the top five senior managerial levels of Italian business organisations in Mainland China. Procedure The study was undertaken during the period April to June 2008 and involved the submission of questionnaires by email and fax to the business executives of the identified Italian companies in Mainland China. An explanatory letter highlighting the aim of the survey and the time frame for data collection accompanied all the questionnaires. ‘Follow up’ emails and calls were made  to the respondents in order to confirm the receipt of the questionnaires, to obtain suggestions about the study and to remind them of the time frame involved. A total of 734 questionnaires were distributed and 173 replies were initially collected. However, due to incomplete information, 24 questionnaires were rejected. Therefore, 149 replies were finally surveyed, with a net response rate of 20.3 per cent. Measures The questionnaire showed 21 items adapted from the main literature that collectively provided responses for the four study variables. These variables were: (a) knowledge of Chinese culture, (b) HR training and development in China, (c) HR appraisal and control in China, and (d) HR attitude and qualifications in China. Knowledge of Chinese Culture (CC) The knowledge of Chinese culture construct measures the degree of knowledge that every Italian company has with reference to the suggested cultural elements: guanxà ¬, jiatà ­ng, rà ©nqà ­ng, ganqà ­ng, lian and mià  nzi, li jià © and kà ¨ qà ¬ as well as feng sà º xà ­ guà  n. The seven items in the scale refer to perceptual phenomena and are rated on a four point interval scale from a very low level of knowledge of the item (scored as one) to a high level of knowledge of the item (scored as four). The Cronbachalpha of the construct was 0.94. HR Training and Development in China (TD) The HR training and development in China construct measures the extent to which Italian companies develop cultural training and HR motivation schemes as important levers to mitigate negative cultural effects within multicultural working groups. The construct was scored with a four item scale adapted from the studies by Schwartz and Bilsky (2008), Cushner and Brislin (1997), and Reuber and Fischer (1997): Chinese workforce training, Chinese workforce motivation, Italian expatriates training and international experience of Italian expatriates. The four items in the scale are measured as dummy variables (1 = yes, 0 = no). The Cronbach alpha of the construct was 0.80. HR Appraisal and Control in China (OA) The HR appraisal and control in China construct studies the role of Italian companies’ appraisal and control practices in leading local HR towards expected results. It was evaluated with a three item measure adapted from the work of Gilbert, et al. (1999), Maznevski, et al. (2002), and Neelankavil, et al. (2000): existence of a HR division in China, HR manager country of origin and appraisal of local workforce to firm performance. Items one and three are measured as dummy variables (1 = yes, 0 = no), item two is measured by defining different scales for different countries of origin. The Cronbach alpha of the construct was 0.81. HR Attitude and Qualifications in China (HO) HR attitude and qualifications in China was assessed with a seven item scale adapted from the studies by Haley and Haley (2006b), Alas (2008), Selvarajah and Meyer (2008), and Dyer and Reeves (1995): job commitment, attitude toward authority, punctuality, absenteeism, rules compliance, language skills and degree of satisfaction of workforce qualifications in China. The construct measures attitude levels and qualifications of HR in China as seen by Italian companies’ executives. Items one to six are rated on a four point interval scale from a negative value (scored as one) to a significant positive value (scored as four). Factor analysis, incorporating the varimax rotation, was implemented to reduce the set of items. Two dimensions were identified: work behaviour and language skills. The reliability of each dimension was tested with the Cronbach alpha coefficient. Table 2 provides the results of factor and reliability analyses. Item 7 is measured as a dummy variable. The Cronbach alpha of the complete construct was 0.85. Analysis Multiple statistical analysis techniques were used in this study. These procedures include exploratory factor analysis and a two level Structural Equation Modelling (SEM). Prior to testing and estimating causal relationships between observed and latent variables, an exploratory factor analysis was undertaken to determine whether or not earlier research findings on the identified constructs could be confirmed. The factor analysis, incorporating the varimax option, assessed the validity of the measurement. Internal consistency reliability was tested and the Cronbach alpha results of 0.94, 0.80, 0.81; and 0.85 were obtained for the constructs of CC, TD, OA and HO constructs; respectively. The analysis supported the dimensional concepts used and provided fullest evidence of construct validity. The five hypotheses were tested with SEM techniques based on a latent structure model with explicit causal relations. The estimated SEM, developed with LISREL (LInear Structural RELationship) 8. 51 (Joreskog Sorbom 2001), follows a logic based on two steps. The first one is related to the process of estimating parameters, based on an interactive procedure aimed at minimising the gap between data produced by the model and observed data. The second step is based on a comparison of the theoretical model with the data observed. If the gap between the matrix of the observed covariance and the expected matrix, generated by the programme, is higher than the gap attributable to the stochastic error, the model is rejected. The analysis will then determine if the model is able to represent the examined phenomenon, through four different sets of fit indices. These indices are represented by the ?2 test, the Overall model fit indices, the Incremental fit indices and the Residuals indices. Prior to testing the complete model, several scholars have suggested that it should be useful to test each latent variable in order to provide the fullest evidence of measurement efficacy (Segars Grover 1998, Apigian, et al. 2005). The TD latent variable has been conceptualised as a second order model, explained by four observed variables. The fit statistics for the model are the Root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) = 0; Confidence Interval for RMSEA (0; 0. 098), Normed fit index (NFI) = 0. 99, Non normed fit index (NNFI) = 1. 08, Goodness of fit index (GFI) = 1 and Adjusted goodness of fit index (AGFI) = 0. 99, confirming a very good model data fit. The OA latent variable has been conceptualised as a second order model, explained by three observed variables. The fit statistics for the model show a perfect fit. HO latent variable has been conceptualised as a second order model, explained by three observed variables. The fit statistics for the model show a perfect fit. The CC latent variable has been conceptualised as a second order model, explained by seven observed variables. The fit statistics for the model are RMSEA = 0. 24; Confidence Interval for RMSEA (0. 20; 0. 27), NFI = 0. 86, NNFI = 0. 80, GFI = 0. 80, AGFI = 0. 60, confirming a sufficient model data fit. Results The integrated exam of the fit indices confirms whether the model is able to fit the data or not. ?2 scores 249 with 114 degrees of freedom, p value 0. Overall model fit indices show reasonable fit results. GFI scores 0. 83, while AGFI 0. 78. CN (Critical N) scores 75. 39. Incremental fit indices show even better values, able to support the conceptual model. NFI scores 0. 81, NNFI 0. 84, while CFI (Comparative fit index) scores 0. 87. Residuals indices confirm that the assumed model is able to explain most of the observed data. The RMR (Root mean square residual) index scores 0. 016, standardised RMR 0. 065, while the RMSEA index 0. 089, with 90 per cent confidence interval between 0. 074 and 0. 1. Figure 2 and Figure 3 provide the main fit indices of the model and the path diagram with their regressors and stochastic errors estimation. How to cite Cultural Differences, Papers Cultural Differences Free Essays string(34) " his feelings to her assumptions\." Cultural Differences COM/360 November 12, 2012 The movie Crash (2004) is about a handful of disparate people’s lives intertwined as they deal with the tense race relations that belie life in the city of Los Angelos over a thirty-six hour period. All the players involved in the movie are: a Caucasian district attorney, his Caucasian wife who believes her stereotypical views are justified, therefore they’re not racist; two black carjackers that use their race to their advantage; two Caucasian police officers, one who is racist and abuses his authority to non-whites, and the other who hates his partner for his racist views; a black film director and his black wife, who feels her husband does not support their own culture enough especially with the wife being violated by the racist cop; the two detectives and sometimes lovers, one Hispanic female and a black male; an East Asian man who gets hit by a car, but is hiding valuable cargo in his van; a Persian store owner who feels he is not getting enough satisfaction or respect from American society when his store is continuously robbed; and a Hispanic locksmith who is just trying to keep his family safe out of harm’s way (Imbd, 2012). Each person’s story interl ocks in some way as they all crash into one another through a series of racist endeavors and stereotypical judgments. We will write a custom essay sample on Cultural Differences or any similar topic only for you Order Now Hall argues that every human being is faced with so many perceptual stimuli—sights, sounds, smells, tastes, and bodily sensations—that it is impossible to pay attention to them all. Therefore, one of the functions of culture is to provide a screen between the person and all of those stimuli to indicate what perceptions to notice and how to interpret them (Lustig Koester, pg. 109, 2012). Hall splits cultures into high/low context and describes how high context cultures use high-context messages where the meaning is implied by physical setting or presumed to be part of the individual’s beliefs, values, norms, and social practices; very little is in the coded message. These cultures include; Japanese, African American, Mexican, and Latino. The low-context cultures prefer to use low-context messages, where the majority of the information is vested in the explicit code. These cultures include German, Swedish, European American, and English (Lustig Koester, pg. 109, 2012). An example of high-context communication; is when the two black carjackers interpret the same meaning and gestures in all their actions. Their actions do not need to be discussed explicitly because they both act the same and carry the shared understanding based on their relationship. An example of the low-context communication is when the Hispanic locksmith goes into the Caucasian attorney’s house to fix the locks and deals with the wife. She harasses him on how she needs every statement to be precise and all his actions to be accounted for. She is looking for his every move to be overt and very explicit because she immediately judges his performance and morale on his race. Hofstede’s five dimensions were identified in his early research when he came to find which dominant patterns of a culture can be ordered, these are; power distance, uncertainty avoidance, individualism versus collectivism, masculinity versus femininity, and long- term versus short-term orientation to time. His findings have provided an excellent synthesis of the relationships between cultural values and social behaviors, which are identifiable throughout this movie. Power distance is one dimension believed to be most present throughout the movie Crash. One basic concern to all cultures is the issue of human inequality and knowing that all people in a culture do not have equal levels of status or social power. A persons power and social status depends more upon their culture and things such as; wealth, age, gender, education, physical strength, etc. As Hofstede’s research expresses; â€Å"cultures also differ in the extent to which they view such status inequalities as good or bad, right or wrong, just of unjust, and fair or unfair. That is, all cultures have particular value orientations about the appropriateness or importance of status differences and social hierarchies† (Lustig Koester, pg. 114, 2012). Power distance is extremely visible in this movie as far as each race having their individual degree of institutional and organizational power, and how to distribute it. For example, when the two Caucasian cops pull the black film maker and his wife over after leaving a work party and are blatantly playing the authority card based on their race and job description. The one racist white cop violates the black woman right in front of her husband for no apparent reason, while the husband is made to feel that if he makes one move he will be punished for his actions. Another example is when the Persian store owner walks into the Caucasian male’s gun store and wants to buy a gun. He has his daughter with him to help translate and pick the right weapon. As they are exchanges words in their language, the white man insults him by referring to him as â€Å"Osama† and tells him to leave his store immediately. The Persian man yells that he is an American citizen and has every right to purchase a gun, the white man replies with, â€Å"not in my store you don’t, now get the fuck out. That of uncertainty avoidance is also seen within the movie from the more foreign cultures that feel they may be presented â€Å"under† the more dominant white race. For example, when the Hispanic locksmith is in the Caucasian attorney’s home changing the locks on the doors, the wife flips out on her husband about how the locksmith is going to go sell their house keys to his â€Å"amigos† and she wants them changed again. She storms off to the kitchen where she looks up to see the locksmith starring at her with a look of shame. He walks to her counter, drops the spare sets down and expects nothing from her, feels no room to express his feelings to her assumptions. You read "Cultural Differences" in category "Essay examples" Because of his race he is immediately seen by the dominant race as being untrustworthy and sneaky. â€Å"Cultural Identity refers to one’s sense of belonging to a particular culture or ethnic group. It is formed in a process that results from membership in a particular culture, and it involves learning about and accepting the traditions, heritage, language, religion, ancestry, aesthetics, thinking patterns, and social structures of a culture (Lustig Koester, pg. 142-43, 2012). The formation of one’s cultural identity is known to form from three different stages known as; unexamined cultural identity, cultural identity search, and cultural identity achievement. The first stage is one’s cultural characteristics being taken for granted and not much interest in exploring cultural issues. The second stage is that of wanting to explore and question one’s culture in order to learn of the strengths and learn acceptance of both themselves and their culture. Last stage, is known as being the clear and confident stage of acceptance to one’s culture and self-identity. In this stage, a person has learned to develop ways of dealing with stereotypes and discrimination as well as being clear about the personal meanings of their culture. Throughout this film, it is justifiable through all the characters actions and perceived self-identity that all three stages are experienced by everyone. A good example is the two black carjackers, in the beginning they questionable as to why their appearance caused them to wait over an hour to eat at a restaurant†¦they were paying customers like everyone else. The two men began to question their race and cultural backgrounds with one another, where they found it justifiable to carjack a white couples’ vehicle (being the attorney and his wife) when spotted in the streets. Towards the end, it became clear to the one black male that he can accept what cultural identity may be fixated on him, but he does not need to follow a society’s outlook, he can learn to deal with stereotypes and discrimination. At this point of his realization, he took the stolen van he had planned to sell, filled with Chinese/Japanese people, and let them go free with $40 of his own money for them to eat. Cultural similarity and fluency allows different cultures to reduce that cultural bias aspect that many of us suffer from when interacting with people of a different race or culture. It has been pointed out that culture really does exist in the minds of people, but that the consequences of culture—the sared interpretations—can be seen in people’s communication behaviors. These provide people with guidelines on how they should behave, and indicate what to expect when interacting with others (Lustig Koester, pg. 148, 2012). This film indicates how each culture is so self- involved with their own beliefs and cultural patterns that they all seem as if they are unfamiliar with different cultures surrounding them. This is not the truth though. Each race and culture is assumed by those who are different because it’s the unknown, those who act similar to one another share interpretations that reduced uncertainty; create predictability, and also stability in their lives. Although, there are several different scenarios in the movie where interracial mixes are seen working together such as; the black and Latino police detectives, the Caucasian attorney working with the police (white and black) about their car being stolen. Although, these type of interactions are solely based on the individual’s interpretation of the unknown culture. â€Å"Interaction only within one’s culture produces a number of obvious benefits. Because the culture provides predictability, it reduces the threat of the unknown. When something or someone that is unknown or unpredictable enters a culture, the culture’s beliefs, values, norms, and social practices tell people how to interpret and respond appropriately, thus reducing the perceived threat of the intrusion† (Lustig Koester, pg. 148, 2012). â€Å"Your beliefs become your thoughts, thoughts become your words, words become your actions, actions become your habits, habits become your values, values become your destiny. † (Mahatma Gandhi). A good example of trusting those with similar cultural patterns is the white cop and his father; The frustrated and racist cop with a chronically ill father who believed, that only a â€Å"white† supervisor or person was competent enough to help him with his ill father’s medical needs (Wolfe, 2010). Another cultural pattern in the film is seen by the two black carjackers, â€Å"systematic and repetitive instead of random and irregular. † The two young men and their discussion of why they should be scared being the only black people in an all-white restaurant, even though they were not, instead others being scared of them because of the color of their skin. This in turn led them both to steal the car because it was expected of their race to steal. Nonverbal communication can send messages to the receiver just as loud and clear as any verbal communication message. There are many different instances of both these concepts being utilized in the film making each culture really â€Å"pop out† in their identity. Nonverbal messages can work to either complement or contradict the intended verbal message. They also help maintain the back-and-fourth sequencing of conversations, which function to regulate the interaction. Nonverbal messages can also work to substitute for the verbal channel by replacing verbal words. In intercultural communication, difficulties in achieving competence in another verbal code are compounded by variations in the nonverbal codes that accompany the spoken word† (Lustig Koester, pg. 200, 2012). An example of nonverbal and verbal message in the film is a message of action that expresses emotion as well as s pecific information; How the racist white cop unprofessionally conducted himself after pulling the black Buddhist film maker and his wife over for a traffic violation. He physically man-handled and shamefully performed his search on the wife up against the vehicle. He aggressively communicated that he was in charge and he can do what he wants (Wolfe, 2010). Another example of nonverbal and verbal communication is toward the end of the movie where the young white cop picks up the young black boy hitchhiking and they begin to discuss where the black guy has been, seeing how he was covered in dirt and visible blood spots. The white off duty cop continuously looks him over for evidence, when the boy starts laughing out loud about the statue that was sitting on the cops dashboard. The cop kept asking what was wrong and as the boy went to reach inside his pocket, the cop grew nervous, grabbed for his gun, and shot the boy. Only to realize that the boy was carrying the same statue that was sitting on the cops dashboard (Wolfe, 2010). The film Crash, is a remarkable, must see film with bravery and honesty in showing fear, prejudice and the dismembered society that people live in. It truly expresses the characters in a way that they are able to see the ugliness inside them as well as others who work to redeem themselves after realizing their cultural beliefs and ways. This movie is socially important in teaching its viewers the meaning and emotions behind the lives people realistically walk through on a daily basis. It teaches the importance of understanding cultural identity and working through cultural bias. Far too often, people are quick to make judgments simply based on someone’s physical appearance. It is imperative that people learn to accept their cultural identity but be mindful and respectful of those who are different around them. Initial perspectives, such as those presented by Hall, can be deadly towards others and lead to Hofstede’s dimensions that can destroy a relationship in many ways. References: Imbd. (2012). Crash. http://www. imdb. com/title/tt0375679/plotsummary Lustig, M. and Koester, J. (2010). Intercultural competence: Interpersonal communication across cultures (6th ed. ). Boston, MA: Allyn Bacon Wolfe, J. (2010). Cramberry. Intercultural communication Indentifies in Movie- â€Å"Crash. † https://cramberry. net/sets/28641-intercultural-communication-indentifies-in-movie-crash-by-j-wolfe How to cite Cultural Differences, Essay examples

Trade Between Africa and Eurasia Changed During the Era free essay sample

Although key elements of the trade between Africa and Eurasia changed during the era of 300-1450, a few factors stayed the same. In 300 C. E. , trade routes were primarily between Europe and North Africa. The way that they changed by the time of 1450 was that they expanded southward and westward. By 1450, these trade routes went through West Africa, sub-Saharan Africa, and the Indian Ocean. One factor that stayed the same during this time period was that the northern coast of Africa was always involved in the trade between Africa and the rest of Eurasia. At the start of this period in 300 C. E, Afro-Eurasian trade was not very sophisticated. There was some collaboration with cultures in the Mediterranean. European goods were brought to Africa and traded for African produces, some of which include spices. The partial interaction from Europe to Africa was a result of the waning of the Roman Empire. We will write a custom essay sample on Trade Between Africa and Eurasia Changed During the Era or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page The southern part of Europe was facing complications, giving evidence to why they were not profoundly involved in trade during this time. This factor changed throughout the time period. For example, during the 800s on onward, Europe had become more stabilized. In addition, the Islamic Empire had risen in the Middle East. With the addition of the Islamic Empire, more regions were available to trade. Because the Islamic Empire had risen, new trade routes had risen as well. Islamic traders came from the east, while merchants from Europe arrived from the north. By this point, the Europeans had different types of technologies that let them go pass the once opaque Sahara desert. Because of this advancement, a larger concentration of trade occurred. While Europe traded with Africa, Indian traders began to arrive to West Africa, as part of the Indian Ocean Trade Network. In sub-Saharan Africa, the system of the gold-salt trade developed. In this trade, Arab and Berber traders crossed the Sahara with caravans loaded with salt. They also carried cloth, weapons, and manufactured goods from the Mediterranean. Meanwhile, African traders brought gold north. The sub-Saharan kingdoms of Ghana, Mali, and Songhai became major contributors in the gold and salt trade. This continued from the 800s to the 1300s. At this point of the time period, the Mongols had expanded throughout Eurasia. However, the only parts of the trade that were ffected were the northern parts between Europe and Asia, because the Mongols concentrated on mostly China, Russia, and some parts of Eastern Europe. By the 1450s, the gold-salt trade started to decline, and soon, the center of trade started to shift away from the Indian Ocean and the Mediterranean. This was because the age of exploration started in Europe, and trade concentrated more towards the Atlantic Ocean. Even though these asp ects describe the ways that change occurred with trade between Afro-Eurasia, one important part did stay the same. North Africa was consistent and always a key part of trade between the continents of Europe, Africa, and Asia. In 300, North Africa was the only area that traded with the Mediterranean. In the time of the gold-salt trade, European venders and Islamic merchants arrived in North Africa. North African merchants still traded even when Europeans started to shift the balance of trade to the Americas starting from the mid-1400s. This is how trade systems between Africa and Europe stayed the same between the years 300-1450. The changes that took place regarding trade between 300-1450 impact other parts of history. One effect of the occurrence of trade in this region was the bubonic plague, which happened around the 1300s. It was originally brought from merchants traveling to Europe from Asia. Another effect of trade during this time is that empires rose and fell. Some of these empires include the rise and fall of the Ghana, Mali, and Songhai Empires in sub-Saharan Africa. For example, these empires rose because of expanded trade in this region as time passed, and fell because of new resources elsewhere (Mali), or because of the trade of advanced weaponry (Songhai). Lastly, even today, Northern Africa is still one of the major players of trade in this region, even though many areas around here are experiencing political and economic problems. However, North Africa is a major of oil and other products and resources to both Europe and the United States. In conclusion, these are the changes and continuities of trade between Africa and Eurasia between the years 300-1450, and how they affect other parts of history. In addition, these events also affect life today.